In Buddhism, moral
virtue is the foundation of the spiritual path, though a fixed attachment to
ethical precepts and vows is seen as a hindering ‘fetter’. Virtue generates
freedom from remorse, and this leads on though gladness and joy to meditative
calm, insight and liberation. While this model of ethics as part of ‘path’
predominates, it is modified in some Mahayana schools, particularly in Japan.
Here, Soto Zen sees morality as the making manifest of one’s innate
Buddha-nature, while Jodo-shin sees it as simply expressing gratitude to Amitabha
for having saved one.
A moral life is not a
burdensome duty or set of ‘oughts’ but an uplifting source of happiness, in
which the sacrifice of lesser pleasures facilitates the experiencing of more
enriching and satisfying ones. Having no real ‘oughts’, Buddhist ethics has
levels of practice suiting different levels of commitment, rather than one set
of universal obligations. Most importantly, monks and nuns make undertakings
ruling out actions, such as sexual intercourse, which are acceptable for
layperson.[1]
The Fourth Noble Truth
is that of the way leading to the cessation of Dukkha (Dukkhaniro dhagaminipatipada-ariyasacca).
This is known as the ‘Middle Path’ (Majjhima Patipada), because it
avoids two extremes: one extreme being the search for happiness through the
pleasures of the senses, which is ‘low’, common, unprofitable and the way of
the ordinary people’; the other being the search for happiness through
self-mortification in different forms of asceticism, which is ‘painful,
unworthy and unprofitable’. Having himself first tried these two extremes, and
having found them to be useless, the Buddha discovered through personal
experience the middle path ‘which gives vision and knowledge, which leads to
calm, insight, enlightenment, nirvana’. This middle path is generally referred
to as the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya-Atthangika-Magga), because it is
composed of eight categories or divisions :
1. Right Understanding ( Samma ditthi
)
2. Right Thought ( Samma sankappa )
3. Right Speech ( Samma vaca )
4. Right Action ( Samma kammantha )
5. Right Livelihood ( Samma ajiva )
6. Right Effort ( Samma vayama )
7. Right Mindfulness ( Samma sati )
8. Right Concentration ( Samma Samadhi
)
Practically the whole teaching of the
Buddha, to which he devoted him self during 45 years, deals in some way or
others with this path. He explained it in different words to different people,
according to the stage of their development and their capacity to understand
and follow him. But the essence of those many thousand discourses scattered in
the Buddhist Scriptures is found in the Noble Eightfold Path.
It should not be
thought that the eight categories or divisions of the path should be followed
and practiced one after the other in the numerical order as given in usual list
above. But they are to be developed more or less simultaneously, as far as
possible according to the capacity of each individual. They are all linked
together and each helps the cultivation of the others.[2]
These eight factor aim
at promoting and perfecting the three essential of Buddhist training and
discipline.
a) Ethical Conduct ( Sila )
b) Mental Discipline ( Samadhi )
c) Wisdom ( Panna )
Ethical Conduct ( Sila ) is built on the vast conception of universal love and
compassion for all living beings, on which the Buddha’s teaching is based. It
is regrettable that many scholars forget this great idea of the Buddha’s
teaching, and indulge in only dry philosophical and metaphysical divagations
when they talk and write about Buddhism. The Buddha gave his teaching ‘for the
good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the
world’ ( bahujanahitaya bahujanasukhaya
lokanukampaya )
Ethical Conduct based on love and
compassion, are included three factors of Noble Eightfold Path : Right Speech,
Right Action and Right Livelihood.
Right Speech means abstentions (2) from
telling lies, (2) from backbiting and slander and talk that may bring about
hatred, enmity, disunity and disharmony among individuals or groups of people,
(3) from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and abusive language, and (4) from
idle, useless and foolish babble and gossip. When one abstains from these forms
of wrong and harmful speech one naturally has to speak the truth, has to use
words that are friendly and benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningful and
useful. One should not speak carelessly: speech should be at the right time and
place. If one cannot say something useful, one should keep ‘noble silent’.
Right action aims at promoting moral,
honorable and peaceful conduct. It admonishes us that we should abstain from
destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest dealing, from illegitimate
sexual intercourse, and that we should also help others to lead a peaceful and
honorable life in the right way.
Right livelihood means that one should
abstain from making one’s living through a profession that bring harm to
others, such a trading in arms and lethal weapons, intoxicating drinks, poisons,
killing animals, cheating, etc, and should live by a profession which is
honorable, blameless and innocent of harm to others. One can clearly see here
that Buddhism is strongly opposed to any kind of war, when it lay down that
trade on arms and lethal weapon is an evil and unjust means of livelihood.
The three factors (Right Speech, Right
Action and Right Livelihood) of the Eightfold Path constitute Ethical Conduct.
It should be realized that the Buddhist ethical and moral conduct aims at
promoting a happy and harmonious life both for the individual and for society.
This moral conduct is considered as the indispensable foundation for all higher
spiritual attainment. No spiritual development is possible without this moral
basis.[3]
Buddhist ethics finds its foundation not
on the changing social customs but rather on the unchanging laws of nature.
Buddhist ethical values are intrinsically a part of nature, and the unchanging
law of cause and effect. The simple fact that Buddhist ethics are rooted in
natural law makes its principles both useful and acceptable to modern world.
Morality in Buddhism is essentially practical in that it is only a means
leading to the final goal ultimate happiness. On the Buddhist path to
Emancipation, each individual is considered responsible for his own fortunes
and misfortunes. Each individual is expected to work his own deliverance by his
understanding and effort. Buddhist salvation is the result of one’s own moral
development and can neither be imposed nor granted to one by some external
agent.[4]
The theory of Buddhist ethics find its
practical expression in the various precept. These precept or disciplines are
nothing but general guides to show the direction in which the Buddhist ought to
turn to on his way to final salvation. Although many of these precept are
expressed in a negative form, we most not thing that Buddhist morality,
consists of abstaining from evil without the complement of doing good.[5]
[1]
Peter Harvey, An Introduction To
Buddhism: Teaching, History and Practices, (Melbourne: Cambridge University
Press, 1990) p. 196
[2]
Walpola Rahula, What The Buddha Taught, (New
York: Grove Press, 1959) p. 45-46
[3] Ibid. p. 47
[4] K.
Sri Dhammananda, What Buddhist Believe (Kuala Lumpur: Buddhist
Missionary Society, 1987) p.146
[5] Ibid
p.147